Managing Wastewater in Coastal Urban Areas (1993) / Chapter Skim
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From page 451... ...
Index A Adenovirus, 99, 205 Aesthetic impacts Boston Harbor, 43 defined, 108 and economic impacts, 108 quantification of, 108 water quality and, 121 Agricultural runoff, 2, 8, 55 Agriculture best management practices, 28 pesticide application rates and timing, 28 Air pollution, 140 Alabama, 211 Albermarle-Pamlico Sound, 71 Algae, 115 aesthetic impacts, 108 bladderwrack, 180 filamentous, 180 opportunistic, 180 overgrowth of coral, 191 reef, 210 zooxanthallae, 181 see also Phytoplankton Algal blooms, nuisance, 23, 24 and anoxia and hypoxia, 181 451 causes, 157, 182, 193-194 controls on, 182-194 diatom, 102, 181, 193 dinoflagelates, 181, 193, 210 estuaries experiencing, 33 and fish mortality, 181 frequency, 181-182, 193, 195 gambiodiscus toxins, 210 gold-brown dinoflagellate, 181, 193 gymnodinium, 210 health risks, 98 management of, 195 nutrients and, 8, 54, 95, 96, 102, 122, 177, 183, 193, 210 and pathogen survival, 217 and seagrass dieback, 180 silicon and, 102 threats to marine wildlife, 46, 54 toxins, 54, 181, 193, 209-210 trace metal availability and, 102-103, 194, 195 zooplankton grazing pressures and, 183 see also Brown tides; Green tides; Red tides Ammonia, 135 Ammonium, 179, 186 Amphipods, 103
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From page 452... ...
ay, 71, 184, 190 Bay ecosystems, 53, 54, 56, 115 Beaches aesthetic concerns, 108 closed, 4-5, 33, 43 pathogens detected at, 211 plastics and floatables on, 108 safety concerns, 92 Santa Monica Bay, 115-116 trash/marine debris on, 5, 6, 27 INDEX Benthic accumulation of organic matter, 123 algae, 191 algal mats, 187 communities, 109 ecosystems, 36, 179 invertebrates, 178 release of contaminants, 124 B ioaccumulation of metals, 5, 123 of pesticides, 139 of toxic compounds, 25, 104, 138 Biochemical oxygen demand, 34, 58 concerns associated with, 10, 23, 56 deep-ocean discharge and, 60 definition and impacts, 24, 179 inputs to estuaries and coastal seas, 179 monitoring, 150 nutrients and, 6, 8, 10, 26, 54, 59 outfall design and, 6 priority assigned to, 5, 27 removal capabilities of treatment systems, 46-47, 57, 58, 59, 61 secondary treatment, 9-10, 46-47, 58, 59 standards, 32, 43 Biogeochemical cycles, 184-185 Biological treatment processes activated sludge treatment, 58 advances in, 311-312 biological aerated filters, 311 chemically enhanced primary plus, 57, 60, 61, 321-322 conventional primary plus, 57, 60, 61, 321, 329-331 high-biomass, 312 nitrogen discharges from, 59 plus nutrient removal, 57 secondary, 46-47, 49, 57, 158 sequencing batch reactors, 311-312 Biosolids (see Sludge) Boating traffic, 2, 22, 29, 108 Boston Harbor cleanup, 20, 42-47 coliform bacteria, 65 CSO discharges into, 43, 44, 65, 158
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, 2, 140 Area Wide Planning Studies, 16, 63 enforcement of discharge standards, 32, 399-400 EPA responsibilities under, 29, 167 litigation for violations of, 44-45 nonpoint-source pollution control, 31 232 objectives of, 31 permits, 399 point sources under, 232 POTWs in compliance with, 33 reauthorization, 51 regional wastewater plans, 161 regulatory approach, 144, 146, 399401
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From page 454... ...
. Integration of environmental decision making, 396-398 local and regional government roles in, 30 objectives, 21 public role in, 30 region, definition of, 160-161 state role in, 29 sustainable, 74-76; see also Integrated coastal management Coastal waters differential response to wastewater and stormwater inputs, 54 dilution capacity, 7, 35, 138 exchange of marine waters, 53-54 Exclusive Economic Zone, 35, 36 nutrients in, 54-55 Coastal zone divisions, 35; see also Estuaries; Continental shelf waters; Ocean waters regional differences in characteristics, 35-36, 53-54 Coliform bacteria, 5 accuracy as health risk indicator, 11-12, 66-67 in Delaware Estuary, 40 detection, 62 enumeration methods, 67 fecal, 38, 40, 62, 66, 127, 208, 209, 218 INDEX in New York Harbor, 38 standards, 66, 121 survival in marine waters, 214, 215, 217 temporal and spatial considerations, 135 total, 38, 66, 127, 208, 209, 218 Coliphage, 67 Combined sewer overflow controls, 134 catch-basin cleaning, 353, 136-137 costs of treatment facilities, 11, 63 dynamic in-line storage and real-time control, 355-356 flow system optimization, 354-356 high-rate satellite treatment, 357-360 history and problems, 350-352 information requirements for, 135 integration of techniques, 65, 362363 legislation of requirements, 63, 65 off-line storage, 360-362 performance comparisons of technologies, 11, 63, 363-366 for plastics and floatables, 125 recommendations, 10-11 research on, 62, 63 screening facilities, 358-359 secondary treatment, 45 sewer flushing, 353-354 sewer separation, 356-357 source controls, 137, 352-356 static control regulators, 355 .
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From page 455... ...
INDEX outlets, 136-137 pollutant loadings, 11, 62 toxic organic chemicals in, 5 and urban runoff, 372-373 Combined sewer systems, 43 Composting, of sludge, 340, 341 Comprehensive Conservation Management Plan, 17, 167-168 Coney Island, 36 Conjunctivitis, 205 Conservation Law Foundation, 44-45 Continental shelf waters anoxia in, 102 characteristics, 35-36 Copper, 25 Coral reefs die-off, 8, 20, 24, 55, 102, 177, 181, 190, 194 sensitivity to toxic substances, 105 Corpus Christi Bay, 71 Cost-effectiveness considerations in risk management, 141-142 of CSO and urban runoff treatment facilities, 11, 63 of integrated coastal management, 159 of pathogen detection methods, 68 of pollution prevention, 300, 303-307 of pretreatment, 303-307 and public support of environmental protection, 69 of was~water reuse, 316-317 of wastewater treatment systems, 57, 59-61, 141-142 Coxsackie viruses, 99, 204, 205, 221 Cryptosporidium, 99, 100, 206, 207, 208-209 C parvum, 209 Cyanobacteria, 182, 186-187, 194 D DDT, 5, 24, 33, 34, 36, 99, 116, 118 Dechlorination, 59, 346-347 Deicing chemicals, 372 Delaware Bay, 41, 71, 184, 190 455 Delaware Estuary fecal coliforms, 40 fish populations, 39 status of, 39-41 tonics, 39, 41 Delaware Inland Bays, 71 Delaware River dissolved oxygen concentrations, 39 effluent discharges into, 39 pollution control in, 33 water quality, 39 Denitrification, 58, 60, 186 Detention areas, 28 Developmental effects, 99 Diabetes, 12, 99 Diarrhea, 12, 65, 205, 206, 207 Diffuse sources defined, 136, 232, 240 modeling and control of, 136-139, 240 natural streams and rivers, 137-138 of nutrients, 8 see also Atmospheric deposition; Combined sewer overflows; Nonpoint sources; Stormwater runoff; other individual sources Dioxins, 5 Disinfection methods chlorination, 58-59, 346 dechlorination, 59, 346-347 efficacy in pathogen inactivation, 50, 65-66, 206, 348-350 electron beam, 348 ozone disinfection, 347 solids interference with, 60 toxicity, 122, 127 tradeoffs in use of, 60 ultraviolet irradiation, 59, 347-348 Dissolved oxygen concentrations, 92 causes of depletion, 9 in Delaware River, 39 in New York Harbor, 36, 39 and pathogen survival, 217 remedial actions, 124 temporal and spatial considerations, 135 water quality standard, 128
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456 see also Anoxia; Biochemical oxygen demand; Hypoxia District of Columbia, 96, 137 Dolphins, mass deaths, 20 Domoic acid poisoning, 100 Dose-response relationships defined, 95 for microorganisms, 219, 219-222 nitrogen and eutrophication, 95, 97, 187-192 risk assessment and, 94 Dredging and filling, 2, 22, 29 Dubos, Rene, 98 Dumping, illegal, 63 Dumpsite 106, 139, 274-275 Dutch Wadden Sea, 180 Dysentery, 207 E Ear infections, 65 East River, 36, 180, 211 Echovirus, 99, 204, 205, 220, 222, 223, 224 Economic instruments for regulation, 82, 404-405, 412-413 administrative charges, 406 advantages over command-andcontrol regulation, 146-147 applicability, 172, 410 critique of, 408-412 deposit-refund systems, 407-408 development of, 77 effectiveness, 77, 408-409 efficiency, 409 effluent charges, 406 fairness, 409-410 feasibility, 410 incentives for technology improvement, 411 liability assignment, 408 liability insurance, 407 marketable permits, 407 monitoring and reporting requirements, 411 noncompliance fees, 408 performance bonds, 408 INDEX pollution prevention versus abatement, 412 product charges, 406 redistribution of income, 410 risk, 410-411 subsidies, 407 tax differentiation, 407 types of incentives, 405-408 user charges, 406 Economists, perspectives of, 91 Ecosystems health indicators, 103, 121 pelagic, 115 priority setting for, 119 sensitivity of, 104-105 stresses and stressors, 103-105, 111, 113 Education strategies, 82, 125 components, 146, 147, 418-420 evaluation as a tool, 422-423 examples, 420-421 and source control, 9, 56, 63 strategies and issues, 421-422 Effluent discharges from barges and ships, 238-239 into Boston Harbor, 42-43 into Delaware River, 39 limitations, charges, and prohibitions, 128, 131 mechanisms of input, 233-240 modeling, 12 monitoring requirements, 3 national permit system, 3, 4, 32 into New York Harbor, 34, 36 pathogens in, 99-100, 212 problems and remedial actions, 120, 122-125 regulation of, 29, 31, 127-128, 401402; see also specific statutes into Santa Monica Bay, 116 screening, 125 standards, 401-402 technology-based standards, 31-32 temporal and spatial considerations in, 135 of toxic pollutants, 31 untreated, 39
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. nterlc microorganisms die-off rates, 67 fish and shellfish contamination, 65 illnesses from bathing, 217-218 number in sewage, 203 occurrence in coastal waters, 211214 survival in marine waters, 65, 214217 in treated wastewater, 65 in urban storm runoff, 65 viruses, 5, 24, 27, 12, 211-214 Enteromorpha sp., 180 Environment, see Coastal environment Environmental degradation, measures of, 109 Environmental inequity, 90 Environmental professionals, 30 Environmental Protection Agency California Ocean Plan approval, 127 Chesapeake Bay Program, 96 consent decrees, 49-50 denial of secondary treatment waiver requests, 43-44 Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program, 149-150 health risk assessment, 117 lawsuits against, 45 National Esturary Program, 114, 167 permitting structure, 65 Quotient Method of risk assessment, 106-108 regulatory responsibilities, 29, 156 Science Advisory Board, 75 secondary treatment standards, 9 sediment quality assessment methods 107, 108-109 457 target for environmental protection efforts, 75 water quality criteria, 66, 106 Environmentalists, perspectives of, 91 Erosion, 195, 372 Escherichia colt, 66, 67, 207, 208, 214, 215, 218 Estuaries algal blooms, 102 anoxia in, 102 characteristics, 35, 53-54 circulation patterns, 53-54 closed for shellfish harvesting, 33 ecological importance of, 35 eutrophication, 4, 54 impairment of designated uses of, 33 National Estuary Program participants, 71 nitrogen inputs to, 184 nutrient input rates, 102 protection strategies, 70, 71, 114, 144-145, 167-168, 396 sedimentation in, 7, 56 tropical lagoons, 183 Estuarine mixing zones, 26 Eutrophication, 4, 24, 27 and algal bed dieback, 180, 194 and anoxia and hypoxia, 92, 102, 177, 178-180, 194 biological secondary treatment and, 59 controls on, 138, 182-194 and coral reef die-off, 194 defined, 54 and dissolved oxygen, 9 dose-response relationships in, 187 192 estuaries with problems, 33 and food-web shifts, 54-55, 178 management, 188, 191-192 model, 41 nutrients and, 8, 33, 95, 177, 178 180, 182, 191-192 phosphate detergent bans and, 33 phytoplankton decomposition and.
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From page 458... ...
458 and silicon abundance, 193-194 zooplankton grazing pressures and, 183 Exclusive Economic Zone, 35, 36 Expenditures for treatment upgrades, 2, 20 F Federal Water Pollution Control, 156 1972 amendments, 2-3, 4, 31, 77 see also Clean Water Act Financing mechanisms, 146, 164 and cost burden of wastewater management system, 147 cost incidence and, 429 debt, 147, 427-428 dedicated taxes, 147, 426 economic impacts and, 428-430 general tax revenue, 147, 425-426 incentives for efficient management and, 429 intergovernmental transfers, 147, 427 revenue adequacy and stability and, 428 user charges, 147, 426~27Freshwater willingness to pay for services and,flows, 22 430 Fish and shellfish algal blooms and, 181, 193 bacterial contamination of, 4-5, 12, 24, 26, 65, 203 bacteriological standards, 66 bay scallops, 181 habitat losses, 178 hypoxia and, 92, 178 kills, 98, 181 metal concentrations in, 5, 25, 118 methyl mercury in, 100 nutrient effects on, 8, 55, 92, 102 oysters, 181, 183, 211, 222 population increases, 39 protection of, 31 risk assessment, 100, 224-226 sardine, 115 toxic contaminants in, 33, 118 toxins in, 181, 193, 209-210 INDEX unacceptable for human consumption, 41 viral contamination, 222 see also Seafood; Shellfish beds Fish and Wildlife Service, 30 Fisheries, 81, 82, 105, 119 bait burse seine, 116 Fishing commercial interests, 30, 116 line, 25 Fishstock management, 29 Floatables, see Plastics and floatables Flocculation, 7 Flood channels, 232 Florida pathogens in shellfish-growing waters, 211 red tides, 193, 194 seafood safety concerns, 66 Florida Keys, coral die-off in, 20 Food and Drug Administration, 29, 66 Food webs bioaccumulation of toxics in, 139 nutrient enrichment and, 54-55, 102, 178 impoundment and diversion, 2 nutrients in, 8, 26, 54, 102, 183, 185 phytoplankton production in, 183, 185 Fucus sp., 180 Galveston Bay, 71 Garbage, 108 Gastroenteritis bacterial, 211 G exposure routes, 217-218 infantile, 205 outbreaks, 204 seafood-associated, 207, 222 from swimming, 217-218 viruses, 205 Gastrointestinal illness, 24, 26, 99, 117
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effects acute effects, 98-99 Boston Harbor, 43 chronic, 99 definition of health, 98 459 development of clinical illness, 220 221 economic consequences as, 98 high-risk behaviors, 100 illnesses from bathing, 217-218 lost recreational opportunities as, 98 risk assessment, 68, 94, 98-101, 118-119, 218-224 stressors considered as, 98-99 and water quality, 121 see also Coliform bacteria; Enteric microorganisms; Pathogens Heavy metals, 23 concerns about, 5-6, 10, 56 at CSO outfalls, 62 dissolved, 5 examples and impacts, 25, 26 monitoring of, 150 priority assigned to, 5-6 removal during primary treatment, 58, 10, 60-61 risk assessment, 99 seafood contamination, 118 in sediments, 135 source control, 5, 46, 55, 141 temporal and spatial scales, 135 toxicity determinants, 99 in urban runoff, 62, 374 see also Trace metals; and individual metals Helminths, 204 Hepatitis A, 12, 24, 26, 66, 99, 204, 205, 221, 222, 224 Hepatitis non-A, non-B, 205 Herpangina, 205 Hong Kong harbor, 193 Hookworms, 204 Hudson River, 182, 183, 211 Humboldt-Arcata Bay, 211 Humpback whale, 46 Hurricanes, 23 Hypoxia causes, 96, 102, 157, 177, 179, 181, 194 ecological damage from, 178-179 and fish and shellfish stocks, 92 temporal and spatial scales, 135
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460 I Incineration of sludge, 59, 139, 342343 Indian River Lagoon, 71 Industrial discharges pretreatment, 9, 28, 46, 55, 123 reduction of, 28 source control and, 55 of spent cooling water, 2, 21 of treated wastewater, 2, 21 Information management, 84-85, 150151 Integrated coastal management administrative authorities, 81, 93-94, 161-162 applicability, 85-86 barriers and solutions, 16, 75, 83, 160-165 benefits, 16, 75, 158-160 conservative analyses and, 92 contingency planning, 165 cost-effectiveness considerations, 159 cross-media considerations, 140-141 defined, 14, 77, 88 definition of coastal management region, 160-161 development of plans, 70, 145 ecologically based strategy, 77-78 economic interests and, 92 enforcement of commitments, 165 examples, 96 federal legislation for, 170-171 fiscal considerations, 92 flexibility in, 16, 78, 84, 128, 159 implementation of, 14, 17-19, 42, 84, 136, 145-147, 164, 165-172 institutional arrangements, 83-84, 144-145, 169-170 international agenda, 76 local support and commitment, 159160 methodology, 75 monitoring progress, 14, 42, 84, 93, 128, 149-150, 164-165 objectives, 13, 14, 16, 41-42, 75, 76, 77, 79, 92 INDEX personalized expectations and, 92 political objectives and, 84, 86, 91 pollution prevention and, 172 preservation interests, 92 principles, 14, 76-79 professional perspectives and, 91 public expectations and, 16, 76, 77, 78, 84, 86, 89-91, 92 public involvement in, 16-17, 42, 90-91, 168 recommendations, 14, 17 regulation of, 171-172 research program, 14, 42, 85, 93, 151 resource considerations in, 93 scientific demands and, 92 social science dimensions of, 172 sources of contaminants and, 93 technical progress and, 76 transdisciplinary perspective, 78 World Bank guidelines, 76 see also individual programs Integrated coastal management process assessment of human expectations, 89-91 consensus building in, 163 defining issues, 91-92, 116-117 domain definition, 16, 80-81, 93-94, 95, 96-97, 160-161 dynamic planning, 14-15, 42, 78, 83, 88-143, 149, 151, 158-159 environmental processes, defining, 79 feasibility considerations, 94, 142 feedback in, 83, 84, 86, 136, 149 goal setting, 79-80, 88-92, 93, 95, 96-97, 158, 162-164 health stressors considered in, 98 human expectations, defining, 80, 98 information management, 78, 84-85, 150-151, 169 inventory of resources and conditions, 89, 165 priority setting, 79, 81, 95, 110, 119 public's role in, 82 review of existing scientific knowledge, 89 risk assessment, 42, 78, 81-82, 85, 88, 94-95, 98-110, 117-119, 163
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INDEX risk comparison, 78, 81-82, 85, 88, Litigation 110-114 risk management alternatives, development of, 81, 84, 82-83, 120-143, 163 for Santa Monica Bay, 114-119 selection of options, 14, 15, 78, 84, 147-149 International Joint Commission, 110 Interstitial water toxicity, 109 Intertidal ecosystems, 36, 180 Introduced species, 2, 23 Iron, 24, 102-103, 187, 194, 195 Isospora, 206 K Kaneohe Bay, 184, 188-191 Kattegat, 179, 193 Kelp beds bacteriological standards for, 47, 49, 50 dieback, 180-181 forests, 115 solids discharges into, 180-181 water quality requirements, 117, 141 Kill van Kull, 36 King Harbor, 115 Kungsbacka Fjord, 188, 189 L Lake Pontchartrain, 218 Land disposal of sludge, 47, 59, 139, 340, 341 Land use in coastal watersheds, 2, 21 growth management and, 396-397, 413-414 implementation of management objectives, 84 planning for bays, sounds, and estuaries, 82, 145, 164, 414-415 and urban pollutant loading, 373 Lawn chemicals, 372 Lead, 5, 6, 25, 27, 33, 139 Listeria monocytogenes, 211 461 and Boston Harbor cleanup, 108, 110 for CWA violations, 44-45, 49 of damage recovery, federal role in, 29 for raw sewage spills, 49 United States and State of California v. San Diego, 50 Litter, 116, 369 Liver disease, 99 Loch Etive, 188 Long Island, virus counts, 67 Long Island Sound, 33, 71, 136 brown tides, 181 contaminated shellfish beds, 92 eutrophication, 92, 190 fish and shellfish stocks, 92, 181 green tides, 181 hypoxia in, 157, 179, 180, 190 integrated nitrogen management plan, 157 nitrogen inputs from sewage, 157, 184, 188, 190 phosphorus loadings, 189 phytoplankton production, 188, 189, 190 Study, 157 Los Angeles County coast, 33-34 Louisiana, 211 M Macrocystis pyrifera, 180 Maine, red tides, 194 Management approaches, see Wastewater management approaches Marine Ecosystem Research Laboratory, 185 Marine resource restoration projects, 29 Marine sanctuaries, 83 Marine wildlife chlorine toxicity, 59 hazards of plastics and floatables to, 25, 108 monitoring populations of, 29 protection of, 31 refuges, 30
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462 Maryland, 96 Mass Bays, 71 Massachusetts Metropolitan District Commission, 43-44, 46 Springfield pollution prevention program, 299 Water Resources Authority, 43, 45, 47 see also Boston Harbor Massachusetts Bay, 43, 45-46, 47 Massachusetts Institute of Technology Boston Harbor studies, 46-47 Measurement, of pollutant transport, 247-248 Medical wastes, 20 Meningitis, 12, 205 Mercury, 5, 25, 118 Mesotrophic lakes, 190 Metals, see Heavy metals; Trace metals Methane, 59, 140 Methyl mercury, 100 Mice and rats, 209 Michigan, 213 Midland Beach, 36 Migratory waterfowl hunting bag limits, 105 Mission Bay, 47 Mississippi, 212, 222, 223 Mobile Bay, 184 Models/modeling advances in, 41 barge and ship discharges, 238-239 Chesapeake Bay, 96 diffusion at outfalls, 134 dispersion, 242-244 ecosystem stressors, 111 eutrophication, 41 far-field transport and dispersion of contaminants, 240-242 health risk assessment, 218-224 and integrated coastal management, 76, 121 oil spill trajectory, 6 outfall mixing/dilution, 235-238 pathogen contamination, 118 phytoplankton production, 194 INDEX pollutant transport and fate, 130, 134-139, 232-233, 240-248 predictive simulation, 6, 42, 69, 136 prototype verification of, 12, 69 sediment quality, 107, 270-272, 280282 sewage effluent behavior, 12, 69 sludge discharge to ocean, 139-140 uncertainties in, 136, 233 virus risk model applied to shellfish consumption risks, 222-224 water quality, 96 Molybdenum, 187 Monitoring defined, 149 ecosystem effects, 150 effluent discharges, 3 EPA Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program, 149-150 health effects, 150 implementation of integrated coastal management, 84, 164-165 importance, 149 long-term, 70 marine animal populations, 29 national and regional programs, 33, 149-150 pathogens, 11-12, 65-68, 121, 127, 150, 211; see also Coliform bacteria pollution trends on coastlines, 29, 93 of POTWs with waivers, 34 public role in, 168 wastewater management strategies, 28, 70 water and sediment quality, 69, 84, 208 Mudflats, 35 Multiport diffusers, 28, 45, 131-134 Municipal wastewater treatment plants combined sewer overflows, 21 Deer Island, 43, 45, 46, 47 effluent discharges, 2, 21, 27, 39 emphasis on, 77 energy use, 140, 344 environmental costs of construction and operation, 140
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. ~ optimization or primary stage s , 309-311 performance, 56-58, 324-332 primary effluent filtration, 310 qualitative comparisons, 56-58, 328332 recommendations, 10 463 representative, descriptions of, 319324 reverse osmosis, 57, 58, 60, 61, 318 screening and settling operations, 56, 58 screening materials, 310-311 sedimentation tanks, 125 sequencing batch reactors, 311-312 sludge, 338-343 solar aquatic, 313-314 source control, 131 technical tradeoffs in, 59-60 tertiary/advanced, 58 toxic organic chemical capabilities, 332-337 wastewater reclamation and reuse, 314-317 water conservation, 317 see also Biological treatment processes; Disinfection; Nutrient removal systems; Outfalls; Primary treatment; Secondary treatment N Narragansett Bay, 71, 181, 184, 188-190 National Coastal Quality Program (proposed)
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From page 464... ...
464 National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System, 3, 4, 32, 170 National Research Council, charge to, 1 Nephritis, 205 Neponset River, 42 Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning, 100, 209, 210 Neurotoxicity, 99 New Hampshire, 212 New Jersey beach trash, 108 viral isolations from shellfish beds, 213 New Jersey Harbor, 71 New Port River Estuary System, 213 New York Bay, 184, 190 New York Bight, 33 anoxic bottom waters, 102, 179 Dumpsite 106, 139 nutrient transport into, 183 viral isolations from shellfish beds, 213, 222, 223 New York City health risks from pathogens, 218 treatment plant upgrades, 33, 34, 37, 180 New York Harbor beach conditions, 36 coliform bacteria, 36, 38 dissolved oxygen concentrations, 36, 39 effluent discharges into, 34 National Estuary Program participation, 71 nutrient transport into, 183 Salmonella, 211 water quality, 33 Night soil, 204 Nitrate, 138 Nitrification, 58, 124 Nitrogen, 4, 24, 26, 27, 177 and algal blooms, 8, 46, 157, 193, 194 and anoxia, 192 biogeochemical cycles and, 184, 185 from biological secondary treatment, 59 INDEX in Cape Cod Bay, 46 dissolved inorganic, 184, 190 dose-response relationship in eutrophication, 187-192 estuaries affected by, 33 and eutrophication, 8, 33, 102, 188, 194 fixation, 102, 185-187 in freshwater versus saltwater, 8, 34, 102, 185 inputs to estuaries, 184, 188, 192 integrated management plan for, 157 levels in Delaware River, 39 and phytoplankton production, 54, 182-187, 190 removal, 47, 58, 59-60, 157 in sediments, 59, 185 from sewage treatment plants, 183184 standards, 126 transport, 179 watershed controls on, 141 Nongovernmental organizations, 30 Nonpoint sources, 41, 366-367 characterization problems, 367-368 defined, 232 importance, 13 management, 31, 298, 367-368 of nutrients, 55 regulation of, 171, 232, 400-401 see also Diffuse sources; Urban runoff; and individual sources North Carolina fish kills in estuaries, 181 virus isolations from shellfish beds, 213, 223 Winston-Salem pollution prevention program, 300 North Sea, 179, 193 Norwalk virus, 204, 205 Nutrient removal systems, 46 disadvantages, 122 and granular activated carbon, 60, 61, 323-324 with gravity filtration, 322-323 with high lime, 60, 61, 323, 323324
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INDEX with reverse osmosis, 60, 61, 324 from wastewater, 322 Nutrients, 23 and algal blooms, 8, 23, 24, 54, 95, 96, 102, 122, 178-180, 210 anoxia and hypoxia problems, 96, 102, 178-180, 194 and bacterial numbers, 217 benefits, 54, 102, 139, 177 and biochemical oxygen demand, 6, 8, 10, 26, 54, 59 in Chesapeake Bay, 96-97 control strategies, 34, 75, 96-97, 138, 182-187 and coral die-off, 102, 194 cycling, and biostimulation, 261 263 and eutrophication, 8, 34, 54, 102, 178-180, 182, 194 examples, 5 and fish and shellfish populations, 102 and food-web shifts, 54-55, 102 goals, 95 impacts, 4, 8, 23, 24, 26, 54-55, 95, 96, 177-178, 194 inputs to estuaries, 177 management, 122, 137 ocean potential for dilution of, 36 and phytoplankton production, 102, 177, 182-190 priority assigned to, 4, 5, 27 recommendations, 8 removal capabilities of treatment systems, 57, 58 risk assessment, 101-102 and seagrass dieback, 8, 55, 95, 96, 102, 177, 180, 187, 194 sediment releases of, 185 sources, 4, 8, 55, 96, 102, 139, 177 transport in marine waters, 54, 135, 183 in urban runoff, 62 from wastewater treatment, 194, 177, 179-180 see also Nitrogen; Nutrient removal systems; Phosphorus 465 o Ocean currents, and pollutant transport, 246 Ocean disposal effluent discharges from barges and ships, 238-239 of sludge, 32, 139-140 Ocean Dumping Act, 29 Ocean floor, sediments, 36 Ocean waters, characteristics, 36 Ohio, Cincinnati pollution prevention program, 300 Oil and gas production, 2, 22, 116 Oil spills and leaks, 5, 25, 116 aesthetic impacts, 108 Coast Guard responsibilities during, 29-30 concerns about, 5, 6, 22-23, 27 disposal of automotive oil, 2, 6 in effluent discharges, 128 impacts, 6 major, probability of, 6 removal during wastewater treatment, 123 small, 6 source control, 9, 55, 123 temporal and spatial considerations, 135 trajectory models, 6 Oligotrophic lakes, 190 Organometallic compounds, 6, 258-259 Outfalls and beach safety, 92 and biochemical oxygen demand, 6 in Boston Harbor, 44, 235 construction materials, 235 defined, 131, 232, 233 diffusers, 56, 122, 123, 124, 131 high-dilution, 6, 43, 47, 49 kelp dieoffs at, 180 large-discharge diffusers, 237 length of, 122 to Massachusetts Bay, 43, 45-46 mixing/dilution at, 134, 235-238 modeling, 134 with multiport diffusers, 28, 45, 131134, 136, 233-236
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466 nitrogen releases from sediments at, 59 particle fate at, 6, 252-253 and pathogen contamination, 50, 122, 127-128, 212 regulation of, 232 to San Diego Bay, 47, 116 and secondary treatment requirements, 130 sludge, 140 toxic metal and organic pollutants at, 62 Overfishing, 2, 22 Oyster River cyst-em, 212 p Palos Verdes Peninsula, 180 Pamlico Estuary, 184, 190 Pamlico River, 188, 189 Paralysis, 205 Paralytic or diarrhea! shellfish poisoning, 100, 181, 209, 210 Parasites, 99, 204, 206-207 Particulate matter, 24 far-field transport, 253 in marine environments, 249-250 at outfalls, 252-253 removal in treatment, 9, 123 sediment-water interface, 253-254 toxic pollutants associated with, 9, 180-181 transport and fate of, 251-253 in wastewater and sludge, 250-255 see also Sediments; Solids Pass Christian reef, 212 Pathogens, 23 animal and wildlife sources, 207, 208-209, 211 coliphage as an indicator of, 67 concerns about, 4-5, 56, 99 detection of, 11-12, 65-68; see also Coliform bacteria dose-response assessment, 219-222 enterococcus standards, 66, 117, 208, 209, 218 examples and impacts, 5, 24, 26 INDEX exposure assessment, 99, 222 exposure pathways, 203 individual measurement approaches, 68 kelp bed protection, 47 management in effluent discharges, 127-128 nonpoint sources, 66 occurrence in coastal waters, 210 214 and outfall discharge location, 127 128 priority assigned to, 4-5, 27, 68 removal in treatment processes, 10 risk assessment approach for, 68, 100, 108, 218-224 risk management, 100, 121, 122 routes of exposure, 99, 217-218 in sediments, 211, 217, 218 sources, 5, 98, 99-100, 108 standards, 47, 49, 50, 121 streptococcal standard, 208, 209 survival time, 65, 67 toxins in fish and shellfish, 209-210 in urban runoff, 12, 374 wastewater-associated, 12, 203-210 zoonotic, 100, 209 see also Disinfection methods; Enteric microorganisms Patuxent Estuary, 184, 190 Patuxent River, 188 Peconick Bay, 71 Pelagic ecosystems, 36, 81 Pelicans, 25, 36, 181 Pennsylvania, 96 Pericarditis, 205 Permitting for CSO discharges, 65 extension to ICM activities, 170 mandatory, 42 multi-media, 307 NPDES, 3, 4, 32, 170 for point sources, 136 for stormwater discharges, 65, 231 232 see also National Pollutant Discharge Permit System
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INDEX Pesticides, 137 application rates and timing, 28 bioaccumulation of, 139 chlorinated, 25, 26 risk assessment, 105-106 in sediments, 116 Phenanthrene, 107 Phosphate detergent bans, 28, 33, 55 levels in Delaware River, 39 Phosphorus, 24, 26, 28, 177 and algal blooms, 193, 194 biogeochemical cycles, 185 and eutrophication, 194 in freshwater versus saltwater, 34, 54, 102, 184, 186 limitation, 183-187 loadings to estuaries, 189 and phytoplankton production, 54, 182, 183, 186, 187-188 removal, 58, 60 in sediments, 185, 186 Photosynthesis, 179 Phytoplankton, 54 decomposition of excess production, 179 light availability, 182, 187 marine versus freshwater ecosystems, 185, 186 measure of biomass, 187, 191 net primary production, 182-184 nitrogen-fixing, 186-187 nutrient inputs and production of, 102, 177, 182-190 sedimentation of, 179, 193-194 self-shading, 183 shading of seagrasses, 180 toxic blooms, 182 zooplankton grazing pressures on, 183, 185 Pigs, 209 Pillayella litoralis, 108 Plant debris, 372 Plastics and floatables, 23 aesthetic considerations, 6, 108 examples and impacts, 5, 6, 25, 26 hazards to wildlife, 6 467 identification of sources of, 6 pathogens in, 108 priority assigned to, 5, 27 range and volume of, 108 remedial actions, 125, 137 Pleurodynia, 205 Poliovirus, 99, 204, 205, 220, 221 Pollutants, 22 assessment of, 403~04 nonpoint sources, 3 - , 29; see also Diffuse sources point sources, 3, 5, 8, 55 ultimate sinks for, 273-276 see also Effluent discharges; Transport of pollutants Pollution control field observations and computer modeling and, 121 nonpoint source, 31, 298 research requirements, 29 solids, 6 technology goals, 31 Pollution prevention Cincinnati, Ohio, program, 300 cost-benefit ratios, 303-307 economic advantages, 300 energy conservation and recovery and, 298 environmental benefits, 303 grants for small businesses, 305, 307 implementation of programs, 298 importance of, 55, 296 multimedia permitting, 307 in municipal wastewater management, 297-298 nonpoint source control and, 298 Orange County, California, program, 298-299 pretreatment contrasted with, 301307 quality certification of technology, 307 Springfield, Massachusetts, program, 299 trace contaminants in sediments, 123 Winston-Salem, North Carolina, program, 300
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From page 468... ...
468 see also Source control Polyaromatic hydrocarbons, 5, 25, 27 Polychlorinated biphenyls, 5, 26, 33, 34, 99, 118, 138, 139 Polymerase chain reaction, 68 Population growth, coastal, 2, 21, 22, 33 Potomac Estuary, 184 Poultry, 209 Pretreatment, 296 cost-benefit ratios, 303-307 environmental benefits, 301-302 grants for small businesses, 305, 307 industrial, 9, 46 multimedia permitting, 307 pollution prevention contrasted with, 301-307 quality certification of technology, 307 Primary treatment advanced, 123 and BOD loading to secondary treatment, 46-47 chemically enhanced, 9, 10, 46-47, 49, 50, 57, 58, 60, 61, 123, 131, 158, 320-322, 329-332 conventional, 57 description of, 58, 320-321 filtration advances, 310 nitrogen discharges from, 59 oil and grease removal in, 123 plants, 43 plus activated carbon, 60, 61 plus biological treatment, 57, 60, 61, 321, 329-331 plus gravity filtration, 60, 61 plus high lime, 60, 61 plus nutrient removal, 60, 61 plus reverse osmosis, 60, 61 sedimentation in, 131 Private entrepreneurs, perspectives of, 91 Protozoa, 12, 26, 100 animal reservoirs of, 208-209 in coastal waters, 210 detection, 67 levels in sewage, 206 INDEX removal from wastewater, 206 survival time, 135, 206, 214-216 transport, 135 in wastewater, 204, 206-207 and waterborne diseases, 206 Public expectations assessment techniques, 90 changes over time, 90, 92 communication of, 90 and cost-benefit considerations, 142143 diversity of, 90-91 environmental inequity, 90 high-risk behavior and, 100 identification of, 90-91, 93 stressors considered as part of, 98 Public health professionals, perspectives of, 91 Public interest groups, 30, 44-45 Publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) in compliance with Clean Water Act, 33 federal funding for, 31 major, defined, 33 n.4 monitoring, 34 waiver of secondary-treatment requirements, 3, 32, 34, 157, 171 see also Municipal wastewater treatment plants Puget Sound, 33, 71, 275 Q Quincy, Massachusetts, litigation, 45 46, 108-109 Quincy Bay, 108-109 R Raritan Bay, 184 Recommendations CSO abatement requirements, 10-11 environmental quality-based treatment approaches, 10 flexibility in wastewater management systems, 12
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From page 469... ...
INDEX implementation of integrated coastal management, 17 integrated coastal management, 14, 17 nutrient control, 8 pathogen monitoring, 12 regionally tailored management strategies, 7-8 source control, 9 urban runoff abatement requirements, 10-11 Recreational water aesthetic impacts, 108 bacteriological standards, 66 contaminated, 26 "fishable and swimmable" goals, 31, 156 health risks, 98 microbiological risks, 65, 224-226 pathogens and diseases associated with, 203, 204, 212, 222 Recycling and reuse economic advantages, 300-301, 316317 source reduction through, 296-297 wastewater, 49, 314-317 Red tides, 8, 181-182, 193, 194, 210 Refuse, 125 Regulation/regulatory system alternative modes of, 171-172 command and control, 146, 171, 398 404 complexity of urban systems and, 403 effluent discharges, 127-128 enforcement, 77 environmental-quality-driven, 158 159 and federalism, 400 flexibility in, 68, 84, 146 of industrial pre-treatment, 401 institutional setting for, 144 new issues, 403 of nonpoint sources, 127-128, 400 401 of outfalls, 232 overcontrol and undercontrol, 11, 63, 65, 140 469 of runoff, 11, 63, 65 standards-based, 82 waivers and variances, 402-403 see also Clean Water Act; Economic instruments for regulation Reovirus, 205 Reproductive toxicity, 99 Research on CSO treatment, 11, 62 funding, 62 integrated coastal management, 85, 93, 151 on Massachusetts Bay environmental processes, 47 needs, 11, 63 on pollution control, 29 regulatory requirements for, 29 on stormwater runoff controls, 11, 62-63 on wastewater management approaches, 28 Resource valuation, 74-75, 89 Respiratory infections, 65, 205 Rhode Island, 211 Risk assessment aesthetic impacts, 108, 110 comparison of risks, 81-82, 110-114, 119 dose-response relationships, 94, 95, 97, 98, 219-222 ecological, 94, 95, 101-108, 109-110 economic considerations in, 108 EPA Quotient Method, 106-108 epidemiology and, 101 exposure assessment, 94, 95, 98, 222 extrapolation from animal studies, 101 hazard identification, 93, 94, 95 human health, 68, 94, 98-101, 111, 118, 218-224 information management and, 85 limit of detection, 100-101 for microorganisms, 100, 218-224 of nutrients, 97, 101-102 pathogens in seawater and shellfish, 100, 121 populations considered in, 100, 112
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From page 470... ...
communities, 179 Clean Water Program, 49 consent decree with EPA, 49-50 enforcement actions against, 50 lawsuits against, 49-50 locations of wastewater and sludge management facilities, 48 Metropolitan Sewerage System, 47 primary treatment systems, 47, 49, 50, 158 Regional Water Quality Control Board, 49 secondary treatment systems, 49, 50 51, 158 sewage generated by, 47 sewage spills, 49, 50 sludge composting and disposal, 47 stormwater discharges, 158 water conservation, 49, 50, 158 water shortages, 49 San Diego Bay, water quality, 47 San Francisco Bay, 34, 71, 184, 188 190 San Juan Harbor, 71 SanPedroBay, 115 Sanitary sewers, 27 Santa Monica Bay contaminant sources, 116 drainage into, 114, 115 ecological health, 119 ecosystem, 115 environmental quality issues, 92, 116-117 fish consumption survey, 151 health risks, 117-118 industrial and municipal disposal uses, 116 major uses, 115-116
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From page 471... ...
INDEX National Estuary Program participation, 71 Restoration Project, 112, 114-117, 119 risk assessment, 110-111, 113 seafood contamination, 110-111, 118-119 stressors, 113 swimming and water contact issues, 92, 110-111, 117-118 wetlands, 115, 119 Saltwater, nutrients in, 26 Scientists, perspectives of, 91 Scromboid poisoning, 100, 209, 210 Seafood contamination, 99, 118-119, 207, 222 paralytic or diarrhea! shellfish poisoning, 100, 181, 209, 210 risk assessment, 118 safety, 29; see also Pathogens site-specific advisories, 118-119 survey of consumption patterns, 151 see also Fish and shellfish Seagrasses, 24 dieback of, 8, 55, 95, 96, 102, 177, 180-181, 194 improper handling of, 210 nutrients and, 8, 55, 95, 96, 102, 177, 180, 187 phytoplankton shading and, 180 symbionts of, 187 Seawater nutrient effects in, 8, 34, 102, 185 pathogen survival in, 214 risk assessment, 100 Seaweed, 115 Secondary treatment activated sludge treatment, 58 benefits of, 34 biological, 46-47, 49, 57, 58, 158 and BOD, 9-10, 46-47, 124 construction of new facilities, 45, 46 costs, 338, 340 CWA requirements, 43 energy requirements for, 140 nitrogen discharges from, 59 nutrient removal, 4, 122 471 oil and grease removal in, 123 outfalls and, 130 source control and, 131 standards, 9 upgrades of plants for, 39, 43 waivers for POTWs, 3, 32, 43-44, 47, 50-51, 131, 157, 171 Sediment quality apparent effects threshold, 110 assessment methods, 107, 109-110 bulk sediment toxicity, 109 definition and criteria, 107, 267-270 engineering systems design based on, 126, 129-130 equilibrium partitioning, 109 International Joint Commission assessment, 110 interstitial water toxicity, 109 modeling, 107, 270-272, 280-282 monitoring, 69 objectives, 7-8, 126 problems, 9 sludge dumping and, 139 spiked-sediment toxicity, 109 standards setting, 121, 126 tissue residue tests, 109 values, 107 Sediment-water interface, 253-254 Sedimentation, 24 benefits of, 138 and coral dieoff, 181 of decomposing phytoplankton, 181, 193-194 in estuaries, 7, 56 flocculation and, 7 outfall diffusers and, 56 processes, 263-267 Sediments accumulation of pollutants in, 7, 54, 62, 116, 123 anaerobic, 6 biogeochemical process within, 186 calcium carbonate, 187 contaminant reactions, 265-266 contaminated, 2, 5, 6, 22, 25, 33, 107, 126, 266 DDT in, 116
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transport, 102, 264-265 fine, 138 freshwater versus saltwater, 186 mixing, 265-266 monitoring contaminants in, 150 negative effects of secondary treatment on, 33-34 N:P ratios, 185-186 nutrient releases from, 8, 59, 185 ocean floor, 6, 36 pathogens in, 211, 217, 218 protection from particle-associated pollutants, 6-7 release to water column, 265-266 risk assessment, 107 river discharges of, 138 toxic organics in, 62, 99, 138, 150, 257-258 in urban runoff, 374-375 U.S. experience, 266 see also Particulate matter; Solids Septic systems, 98, 99, 212, 372 Sewage amounts generated, 47 nitrogen inputs from, 183-184 pathogens in, 4, 204, 206 source reduction, 28 spills, 49 untreated, 204 see also Effluent discharges; Wastewater Sewer separation and CSO abatement, 137 conventional full, 356-357 flow slipping, 357 partial, 356-357 practicality of, 137 Sheep, 209 Shellfish beds closed, 4-5, 33, 43, 213 open, 213 reopening of, 92 virus isolations from, 213 Shigella, 24, 204, 207-208 Ships/shipping, 2, 22, 30, 108 effluent discharges from, 238-239 INDEX Silica/silicon, 8, 24, 102, 182, 193 Silver, 25 Skagerrak, 193 Skin infections, 65 Sludge biological treatment, 58 comporting, 47, 59, 340, 341 conversion to fertilizer pellets, 46 costs of treatment, 10, 59, 338, 340 cross-media consequences of disposal methods, 139, 140 defined, 58 dewatering, 59, 140 digestion/digested, 59, 139, 140 direct land application, 343 discharges into coastal waters, 43 dumpsite 106, 139-140, 274-275 incineration of, 59, 139, 140, 342343 land application of, 59 land-based processing facility, 45 land disposal of, 47, 59, 139, 340, 341 metals and toxics in, 58 methane from, 59 modeling of discharges, 139-140 and nutrients, 139-140 ocean disposal of, 139-140 outfall, 140 particles from, 248-255 source control and quality of, 8, 55, 130, 131, 139 treatment, 32 untreated, 204 volume produced, 10, 58, 338, 339 Small business, grants for source control, 305, 307 Snow Mt.
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INDEX fine, 10 mechanical screening, 137 monitoring, 150 pollutants associated with, 9, 56, 180-181 priority assigned to, 5, 6-7, 27 removal efficiency of treatment processes, 9, 10, 49, 50, 57, 59, 60, 137 secondary treatment, 9, 58 separators, vortex, 137, 359-360 settleable, 6, 58, 128 sources, 6-7 standards for, 9, 32, 43 suspended, 6, 9, 26, 49, 56, 57, 121, 128, 131, 137, 374-375 swirl concentrators, 137 total suspended, 32, 43, 57, 59, 60, 150 toxicity of, 10 see also Sediments; Sludge Solvents, 5, 6, 26 Sounds, 8 Source control/reduction, 2, 3 approaches, 28, 131 of combined sewer overflows, 9, 63, 352-356 cost-benefit ratios, 303-307 defined, 131 effectiveness, 8, 9, 55, 70, 131 environmental monitoring data and, 70 of metals, 5, 8, 9, 46, 55, 141 modeling, 70 of oil and grease, 9, 55, 123 of pollution in urban runoff, 63, 376 378 recommendation, 9 and sludge quality, 55, 130, 131, 139 of toxic organic chemicals, 8, 9, 46, 55, 70, 130, 131, 141 and urban runoff pollutants, 55-56 see also Pollution prevention; Pretreatment; Recycling and reuse South Beach, 36 South Carolina, 211 South Wales, 212 473 Southern California Association of Governments, 117 Southern California Bight, 33, 114, 275 Spain, 211 Speciation, trace elements and, 258-261 Spent cooling water, 21, 116 Spills response and containment programs, 63 see also Hazardous materials; Oil spills and leaks Sponges, 181 Staten Island, 36 Storm drains, 231-232 Storm sewers cross-connections and illicit discharges into, 372 designs, 9, 56, 63 outlets for, 116, 136 removal of floor drain connections to, 63 storage capacity, 28 warning signs, 9; 55-56 Stormwater runoff, 116 assessment of aquatic and human health impacts, 62 costs of quality controls, 384-385 fecal coliforms in, 62 impact of, 61-65 modeling and control, 136-137 nutrients in, 98 outlets, 136-137 pathogens in, 62, 98 quality enhancement with artificial wetlands, 383 regulation of discharges, 65 sources, 23 see also Urban runoff Stream modification methods, 137-138 Structural controls for runoff, 378-379 artificial wetlands, 383 defined, 378 detention devices, 382-383 filter strips, 379, 381 infiltration devices, 381-382 minimization of directly connected impervious areas, 379
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. Oceanic currents impinging on coasts, 246 at outfalls, 252-253 particles from wastewater and sludge, 251-255
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From page 475... ...
cholera, 208 V parahaemolyticus, 211 Virginia, 96, 211 Viruses, 26, 204 in coastal waters, 210, 211-214 detection, 67, 211-212 disease incidence and mortality rates, 204-205 enteric, 12, 204 examples, 99 monitoring, 211 recreational exposures, 203, 222 risk model applied to shellfish consumption, 222-224 seafood contamination, 203, 204, 212 in sediments, 217 in stormwater, 117 survival time, 135, 204, 212, 214217 transport, 135 in wastewater, 204 see also Enteric viruses W Washington, 211 Wastewater collection, 27 location and mechanism of discharges, 28 metals in, 99 nutrient concentrations in, 177 open-ocean discharges, 28 particles from, 248-255 pathogens associated with, 203-210 reclamation and reuse, 61, 314-317 toxic organic chemicals in, 99 Wastewater and stormwater management approaches activities involved in, 1-2
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From page 476... ...
476 adequacy of, 42, 148 Boston Harbor, 20, 41-47 case histories, 20, 41-51 challenges in, 41-32, 172-173 and coastal management objectives, 21 comprehensiveness test, 148 concepts, 13 cost-effectiveness considerations, 69 current policies, 2-7, 31-32 development of alternatives, 31, 6869, 145 economic incentives, 404-413 education for behavior change, 2, 28, 56 environmental quality-based, 10, 16, 127-128, 158-159 environmental studies of, 2 evaluation and feedback, 12-13, 42, 69-70, 145 flexibility in, 12-13, 16, 68-70, 145 funding of, 4, 164 government role in, 144 information sharing on, 30 integration test, 148 issues, 1, 21 legislation, 2-3 monitoring and research program, 28 non-inferiority test, 148 objectives, 158 plan components, 145-146 pollution prevention and, 55, 297298 progress in, 3-4 public role in, 30 purpose of, 1-2 regional tailoring of, 7-8, 10-11, 54, 55 in San Diego, 47-51 source control, 2, 55-56 treatment technologies, 4, 27-28 see also Municipal Wastewater treatment plants; Municipal Wastewater treatment systems Wastewater constituents examples and impacts, 23-26 high-priority, =5, 26-27 INDEX low-priority, 6-7 medium priority, 5-6 sources, 23 Wastewater disposal system choice of components, 282-285 computer integration of field and laboratory, 287 design steps, 277-278 modeling water and sediment quality, 280-282 for nutrients, 286-287 for particles, 286 for toxicants, 286 water-quality-driven approach, 278280, 285-287 Wastewater treatment energy requirement, 28 improved processes, 33 institutional setting, 394-395 land-area requirements, 28 levels of, 9-10, 27-28, 56-61 nutrients from, 8, 55, 179-180 plants, 131; see also Municipal Wastewater treatment plants sludge from, 28 standards for, 3 undercontrol and overcontrol, 156158 and water quality, 28 see also Disinfection methods; Municipal Wastewater treatment systems; Secondary treatment; Toxic chemicals used in treatment Water conservation and reclamation, 2, 28, 55-56, 158, 318 benefits, 8-9, 56 and pollutant concentration, 8 San Diego Clean Water Program, 49 uses of reclaimed water, 61 see also Recycling and reuse Water pollution control in New York Harbor, 34, 36-39 successes, 34-41 Water quality assessment methods, 107 criteria, 106, 107 defining, 121
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From page 477... ...
INDEX engineering systems design based on, 126, 129-130 in kelp beds, 117 median effective concentration, 107 median lethal concentration, 107 model, 96 monitoring, 69, 84, 208 no observed effect level, 107 nonnumerical description of, 126 objectives, regional variation in, 7-8 predicting, 280-282 problems, 9, 56 progress in improving, 1, 3-4, 20, 32-41 in San Diego Bay, 47 standards, 31, 107, 117, 121-126 wastewater treatment technology and, 28 Water quality management command-and-control, 398-404 economic instruments, 404-413 education and, 417-424 growth management and, 413~17 problems and remedial actions, 122125 regional planning failures under CWA, 161 477 Water quality policies adequacy, 1, 20, 31 education strategies, 418~21 fragmentation of issues, 39~395 jurisdictional complexity and, 395396 public expectations and support, 42 Water resource management importance of, 61 regional planning, 145, 396, 415-416 see also Water conservation Water shortages, 49 Weirs, 28 Wetlands, 115, 119 artificial, 383 Whipworms, 204 Wisconsin, Milwaukee plan for CSOs and sanitary sewer overflows, 65 World Bank, 76 World Health Organization, 98 y Yersinia sp., 208, 209, 215 z Zooplankton, 183, 185
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From page 478... ...
Toward Sustainability: Soil and Water Research Priorities for Developing Countries ( 1991 ) Preparing for the Twenty-First Century: A Report to the USGS Water Resources Division ( 1991 )
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